Monday, July 4, 2011

3. Prem: Environment and Conflict Review of Nepal

3. Prem: Environment and Conflict Review of Nepal




Environment and Conflict: Review of Nepal’s Experience
ADB, ICIMOD (2006)




Devs 504: Population and Development
Prof. Dr. Amulya Ratna Tuladhar
School of Arts,
Kathmandu University





Submitted By:
Prem Khattri Chettri
M.Devs. III/2010
June 08, 2011

Contents
Abstract 2
Summary 3
About the Organisations 5
Asian Development Bank 5
ICIMOD 5
Subject Paper context: 6
Theoretical and Analytical category: 8
Increase in population and effects on natural resources and development. 8
Malthus theory of population 8
Paul R. Ehrlich 9
Ester Boserup Theory 9
Biological Sustainable theory 11
Analysis of the paper through Multiple Theoretical Lenses. 12
Population (OTB) 12
Critique of Neo-Malthusianism problematique of population 12
Demographic Transition Model(DTM): Understanding. 12
Population and political ecology 13
IPAT concept 13
Natural resources (OTB) 15
Environmental Economic 15
Sustainable Development 15
Political Ecology 16
Deep Ecology 16
Development (OTB) 17
Rostow’s Stages of Development 17
Development desirable or alternative goals for society from environmental, social and economic view? 17
Development Trap: Vicious Circle of Poverty 18
Post development 18
Discourse Analysis 20
Judgment: 22
Synthesis: 26
References: 28




Abstract
Conflict over scarce resources, such as land, forest, minerals, water etc., is increasing rapidly. Recently, a number claims have been made to the effect that environmental degradation will increase resource scarcity and therefore contribute to an increase in conflict. The effects are not direct; however they exert their impact through other proximate factors such as increased scarcity of renewable resources, reduced economic productivity, migration expulsion, or the weakening of the state authority. There are various mechanisms through which population change affects conflict. These are long and short term effects. It was emphasized that the long term effects of population dynamics on conflict is the most serious because the impact of long term trends is not sudden, but 'creeps in'. Rapid population growth and economic development in country are threatening the environment through expansion and intensification of agriculture, uncontrolled growth of urbanization and industrialization, and destruction of natural habitats. The present paper is an attempt to study the population change and its impacts on land, forest and water resources in the context of Nepal. High population growth rates are increasing population density and number of people below poverty line. Population pressure contributes to land degradation and soil erosion, thus affecting productive resource base of the economy. Rapid population growth plays an important role in declining per capita agricultural land, forest and water resources.
Keywords: Conflict, environmental degradation, resource scarcity, population, agriculture







Summary
What is environment? The totality of the physical condition of the earth is generally called environment. The environment is deteriorating day by day and the main cause behind it is the human activities. In today’s context the problem of environmental conflict is increasing at the alarming rate and becoming the hot issue globally. Moreover, the past wrong approaches that has affected the environment are no longer tolerated and the voice towards correcting past wrong deeds has been increasing.
Why there is conflict in the environmental resources? At the local level conflicts are closely related to lack of access to critical resources. Resource scarcity is one of the problems for conflict in environment. There are mainly four types of resources scarcity such as physical scarcity, distributional scarcity, geopolitical scarcity and environmental scarcity. The conflict will arise in each case if the resources are not distributed equitably and this situation arises when there is high population growth and the demand for resources increases exponentially and in such case if the supply does not meet the growing demand than the situation of conflict will arise. Rapid population growth from the many decades has been considered as one of the most unavoidable factors for the deteriorating environment. For instance the converting forest area as cultivable land to meet the growing food demand, increasing soil erosion, deforestation, declining soil fertility and decrease in land productivity are some of the issues that is derived from rapid population growth. It has been stated that the world population will stabilize around 2050 at approximately 8.9 billion and there are chances that it would stabilize sooner too. But this does not mean that the demand for natural resources will decline because of the high consumption pattern of human beings, unequal distribution and access to resources will also intensify competition for limited resources resulting in conflict. Country like Nepal with large portion of people depending on land, forest and water for their livelihood posses serious threat to the environment in the long run.
Furthermore, the environmental conflict also arises when there is lack of proper mechanisms for managing the resources. Some policy favoring one group of people while neglecting the other groups this is the case of institutional failures. For example, many public industries continue to operate that are causing huge environmental problem only because of government protection. It has been observed that human beings has taken very less attention towards the true cost of environment and this may be due to lack of laws and regulations to control environmental damage. Globalization and inequities in the world’s economic systems are also the cause of environmental conflict. As stated that having plentiful of resources is a curse for some countries as it gives more chances for environmental conflict. Abundant resources with weak institution gives opportunity to some people take arms to control the resources which are the very existing case in many African countries.
It is not that the efforts of controlling the environmental conflict has not been taken up, many developed countries are serious about it and there is growing interest in ecological security. However, there is difference in between the developed and developing countries. Developing countries are taking it as a barrier for the development.
In Nepal the environment and the conflict is emerging issue and receiving a high priority. Being an agrarian country the conflict on natural resources are widespread in land, forest and water. At the same time there is another environmental conflict in urban areas too. Nepal is an agricultural country; where still about 80% of people dependent on agriculture for their livelihood, the land holdings in Nepal is very un-equitable. Few percentages of people hold large percentage land where as the poor farmer who tills the land owns very minimal amount of land. Moreover, the increase in population has furthermore decreased the land holding in Nepal as a result this is leading to conflict for space, ownership and control. Similarly, the distinct geography and fragility of country geography are also the reason for the high competition and conflict. Conflict in forest and water use is also arising day-by-day at a constant speed than before. The water scarcity problem in urban area is very tense and if timely mechanisms are not adopted the issue could lead to very serious conflict in the long run. Similarly, the land hunger in Nepal is being fulfilled by bringing more forest area under cultivation, the illegal settlement in the forest and protected area by landless groups causing the loss of forest and environment because of poor management and institutional failure. In the name of development many were displaced from their original settlement, and there is no proper mechanisms to rehabilitate them as a result they capture the forest areas illegal and settle their, such as the case of Kamaiyas or bonded labor. The government has made the Kamaiya system illegal but fails to rehabilitate them.
About the Organizations
Asian Development Bank
Nepal is a founding member of ADB. Cumulative lending to the country has reached $2.63 billion, with investment grant projects amounting to $603.25 million and technical assistance (TA) of $148.31 million. Assistance supports work in agriculture and natural resources, education, water supply and other municipal infrastructure and services, transport, information and communication technology, finance, energy, public sector management, climate change, and social protection
ADB’s main instruments in providing help to its developing member countries are policy dialogues, loans, technical assistance, grants, guarantees, and equity investments. ADB’s annual lending volume is typically about $6 billion, with technical assistance provided usually totaling about $180 million a year.
ICIMOD
The International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, ICIMOD, is a regional knowledge development and learning centre serving the eight regional member countries of the Hindu Kush-Himalayas – Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan – and based in Kathmandu, Nepal. Globalization and climate change have an increasing influence on the stability of fragile mountain ecosystems and the livelihoods of mountain people. ICIMOD aims to assist mountain people to understand these changes, adapt to them, and make the most of new opportunities, while addressing upstream-downstream issues. They support regional trans boundary programs through partnership with regional partner institutions, facilitate the exchange of experience, and serve as a regional knowledge hub. Strengthening network among regional and global centers of excellence. Overall ICIMOD is working to develop an economically and environmentally sound mountain ecosystem to improve the living standards of mountain populations and to sustain vital ecosystem services for the billions of people living downstream now, and for the future.
Subject Paper context:
The present chapter 11 Environment and Conflict is taken from the book Environment Assessment of Nepal: Emerging Issues and Challenges and was published in the year 2006 by ADB and ICIMOD when the concept of environmental conflict is emerging causing many problems to the people. In the context of Nepal the reliable and authentic data were not available or if available they are not authentic. Moreover, the publication demonstrated that the strong commitment of ADB’s and ICIMOD’s in developing South Asia’s environment knowledge further. The publication has a good amount of data and information and high lights the key emerging issues. The extensive sources listed will help future researches with a basis of identifying new sources of data for future work and it is hoped that new set of data will identified more gaps and helps in encouraging further development of environmental statics culture in Nepal.
The chapter was seen from the resource point of view only. The concept of resource is an economic one. The environment effects do not lead directly to conflicts. They rather produce several social effects and these cause violent conflict. Thomas HOMER-DIXON (1991) gave a list of four principal social
effects caused by environmental degradation. These are:
– decrease in agricultural production,
– general economic decline,
– population displacements,
– disruption of institution and social relations.

There might be some difficulties with identification of environmental origins of conflict must be noticed. First of all, environmental causes of conflict are interrelated with other causes in most cases. Moreover, conflicts caused by environmental factors usually do not manifest directly their environmental origin. However, despite of environmental scarcities are already contributing to violent conflicts in many parts of the developing countries, for instance Latin America. In Nepal too such consequences are emerging rapidly. The serious problems have already been seen resulting from shortages of water, forest and land. The urban dwellers of Nepal especially the Kathmandu’s could be the one good example where shortage of water, air pollution and diminishing fertile cultivable land at the first rate.
Finally, environment plays a major role in enabling and sustaining poverty reduction moreover the effects magnified within mountainous ecosystems as found in Nepal.

















Theoretical and Analytical category:
The environment which is crucial factor from every aspect of the human development is being worsening at an alarming rate than usual rate by the different activities of human beings. Population, natural resources and development are closely link with one another. Any change in these three dimensions will lead to server consequences in the long run. Let us observe these three different dimensions but related with each from different perspective to have more clear understanding how they are allied.
Increase in population and effects on natural resources and development.
Malthus theory of population
Malthus is a popular name when we talk of population. He is famous for his Iron Law of Population, in his theory he has stated that the population grows in geometric ratio and the other means of subsistence in arithmetic whose ultimate end would be poverty. His theory explains that people have a natural tendency to reproduce hence in absence of any moral restrain the population will explode leading to Malthusian Doom like Famine. He also explains that there are two types of checks which control the population. The first one is the positive checks such as events which raise the death rate such as hunger, disease and war. And the second is the preventative checks and it includes abortion, birth control, postponement of marriage and celibacy.
Furthermore, “Theory of Himalayan degradation” a thesis reports by Guthman supports the theory of Malthus. He too mentioned that there is negative relationship between environment and population. With the increase in population the problem related to environment will also increase which is the case Nepal too where the resources are declining and conflict related to it are increasing. As mentioned in the report the main cause of land degradation is increasing population. At the same time there are other several impacts caused by growing population such as soil erosion, landslides, hydrological disruptions, deforestation, and climate change, air pollution, and water pollution and so on.
Paul R. Ehrlich
Paul R. Ehrlich’s “Population Bomb” also supports the argument put forward by Malthusian theory and moreover it has predicted too that disaster for humanity will occur is due to overpopulation. He has written that in 1970s and 1980s, hundreds of millions of people will starve to death", and nothing can be done to avoid mass famine greater and radical action is needed to limit the overpopulation.
Ester Boserup Theory
As Malthusian theory states that the size and growth of the population depends on the food supply and agricultural methods. However, Boserup came with new idea criticizing the concept of Malthus. Boserup in her book, The Conditions of Agricultural Growth: The Economics of Agrarian Change under Population Pressure said that agricultural methods determine population. Therefore, people have the ability or resource of knowledge and technology to increase food supplies with the increase in population. The graph shows how the rate of food supply may vary but never reaches its carrying capacities because every time it is getting near, there is an invention or development of technology that causes the food supply to increase.
Population is one of the dynamic for the development of a country, however high population unfortunately leads to the economic downfall. Nepal has a population of about 30 million which states that the population is growing rapidly causing scarcity of resources leading to conflicts. However, some argue this would not be the case as William Catton states that the number of people at a given environment can support indefinitely as a result the needs of the people are balanced against the health of the environment. (ppt, Theories of Population Growth, slide 14). Similarly, Boserup concludes that with the increase in population the new technologies in the agricultural sector will be adopted in order to meet the growing food demands of the food. Given these theories, would it be the case in Nepal? No, because population of Nepal is growing rapidly and the resource scarcity is already started become visible and no new technologies were adopted in agriculture to increase the food production. Similarly, the case of carrying capacity is also not seen, if it is than there would not be the case of conflict.
Similarly, The importance of natural resources particularly land, water and forest is very significant for Nepal because of high percentage of people depends on these resources for their livelihood However, in recent time these resources are depleting. Increase in fuel wood demand, terrace cultivation on steep marginal land, runoff summer season, has already been observed in Nepal. A case of Jhikhu Khola can be traced here the rapid population growth in the area is transforming the land use affecting the sustainable use of bio-physical resources for the food, fuel wood, fodder, clothing and shelter(Land Use Dynamics and Intensification ICIMOD).
Having the discussion on the importance on the population and natural resources it is necessary to see how it affects the development with increased population and depleting natural resources. For ideas of development economics or development theory to make sense it necessary to recognise difference between developing and developed societies. Developed societies are those that have already reached the final stage of development as Rostow’s different stages of development. Developing societies are those which are in first or second stage of development. It is important to note that the developed countries are more concerned in ecological security where as developing one find it as a barrier in their process of development.
Nepal which is a developing country with increasing population is already posing many challenges in its development. Therefore the sustainable development is the priority of Nepal. “Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (Brundtland Commission 1987). If we follow this approach, then we meet the needs of present and future too without worsening the ecology.

Biological Sustainable theory
Biological sustainable exploitation theory explains how population and ecosystem response to exploitation and ties this to management options. The major focus is when population is reduced by exploitation it removes competition for food, territories and shelter and lower transmission rate of disease leading to greater birth rate or enhanced survival.
It describes three model of the exploitation that is:
a) High quota – The situation where the yield exceeds the population surplus production capability, which may be because of illegal hunting act or population’s resilience had been over estimated. It is the condition when the species over-exceeds the high quota, species will extinct.
b) Maximum Sustainability Yield – It is an alternative and seems more sensible in the maximum sustainability yield quota. But it is very risky target as it is impossible to get precise management of either surplus production or the population. In case if the population is or at smaller than expected maximum yield the quota will exceed its surplus production and will decline to zero.
c) Low quota – It is the condition when the certain species become extinct after reaching the population criteria. Exploiting at low quota indicates the growth to a stable equilibrium whereby we have sustainable exploitation.
In the context of Nepal relating with paper that over exploitation of natural resources such as forest, land and water is clearly shown on the paper. For instance, the mass deforestation of forest for the cultivable land and illegal settlement of people in the forest area has destroyed the forest area causing landslide, soil erosion and many such problems.

Analysis of the paper through Multiple Theoretical Lenses.
Population (OTB)
Critique of Neo-Malthusianism problematique of population
Neo-Malthusian theory argues that unless at or below subsistence, a population’s fertility will tend to move upwards. Moreover, given the subsistence condition the fastest growing of population would be the one progress rapidly technology and this group could be the one with highest fertility. Furthermore, some groups are more pro-fertility which will increase the population and leads to hyper exponential population growth leading towards the downfall of economic growth. In the context of Nepal as illustrated in the paper, that one of the constraints for economic development is the high growing population of the country. As there is increase in the population the land size will decrease and the competition and conflict will arise for the ownership of land holding this eventually leads to environmental conflict. Again, the situation is not the same of past few decades where there is plenty of land that meets the food demands of population. The adoption of new technology is also not seen in the context of Nepal in agricultural sector and for this to happen still a long time we need to wait.
Demographic Transition Model(DTM): Understanding.
The theory is based on an interpretation of demographic history developed in 1929 by the American demographer Warren Thompson which involves the changes in population over the 200 years. It is a model used to represent transition from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates as a country develops from a pre-industrial to an industrialized economic system.
In DTM Nepal is in second stage where it has a high birth rate and declining death rate. However, the projection of DTM will fail in Nepal because the latest data on Nepal shows that birth rate is 28 per 1000 while the death rate is 9 per 1000. So the net population growth rate is 19 per 1000. Further, as Ritu Panthi has stated, a significant proportion of Nepal’s population is young and when these young people become of reproductive age, we can expect them to increase population significantly. Thus the demand for natural resources will be high in the future leading to more competition for ownership of the resources and eventually this will pilot environmental conflict
Population and political ecology
Ecology, that grew out of traditions of cultural ecology and political economy, attempts to answer how human practices of resource use are shaped by social relations at multiple levels over time, and the ways that these relations shape and are shaped by the physical environment. As Blaikie and Brookfield, in probably the most frequently cited quotation in political ecology, describe as the "shifting dialectic between...social groups and their physical environment" (Blaikie and Brookfield 1987). Nepal, where multiple players are involved in decision making level, the process of fair distribution of rights and resources would not seem possible. Hence, the environment conflict is also one of the causes of failure institution for proper management and distribution in the society.
IPAT concept
Paul R. Ehrlich and Anne Ehrlich the author of bestselling book “The Population Bomb” in 1968 warned of the mass starvation of humans in the 1970s and 1980s due to overpopulation, as well as other major societal upheavals, and advocated immediate action to limit population growth. Paul Ehrlich, in his work states that the impact of humans on the environment is summarized in the I=PxAxT formula. In words:
Human Impact (I) on the environment equals the product of P= Population, A= Affluence, T= Technology. This describes how our growing population, affluence, and technology contribute toward our environmental impact.
The formula was proposed as a measurement of the environmental impact of a society, by multiplying the population, affluence, and technology of that society. All three factors that establish impact are so interwoven with one another that it is hard to calculate them independently. When affluence and technology increases, then there is an impact on the population, increased population increases our environmental impact in many ways, which include but are not limited to:
 Increased land use - Results in habitat loss for other species.
 Increased resource use - Results in changes in land cover
 Increased pollution - Causes climate change, sickens people and damages ecosystems.
Moreover in the context of Nepal where about 80 percent of population still dependent on land and forest for their livelihood. Therefore, forest and land plays important role for the livelihood of the Nepalese people. However, with the differences in the distribution of available resources conflict and class differences emerge in the society between the ‘haves’ and the ‘have not’s, the rich and poor. Finally, this differences in distribution creates the problem like soil erosion, floods air pollution are n the rise.
















Natural resources (OTB)
Environmental Economic
Natural resource is a function of physical supply, market demand and state of technology available. In other word, without proper management and utilization of natural resources, its benefit is difficult to obtain. Perhaps it’s one of the reasons why Nepal has lag behind in making the best out of natural resources. In fact, improper management and unskilled utilization of environmental resources has led to rather deteriorating situation. As the paper states that during the Maoist conflict many areas of conservation were seized, there is contradiction in the Forest Act and Mines similar differences can be found in other sectors of natural resources too. This suggest that there is proper coordination and management is lacking in decision level as a result having such a plenty of natural resources we are not able to gain the benefits of it.
Sustainable Development
Sustainable development is meeting the needs of the present without hampering the future needs. However, the sustainability part especially in the natural resources is lacking in the Nepal context. For instance, in the urban environment where the population is very high, the resources are used haphazardly. Through realizing the cause of growing population on environment at present many development workers has emphasized the concept of sustainable development. The proper use of energy, managing cities better, removing subsidies that encourage waste, managing water resources and protecting freshwater sources, harvesting forest products rather than destroying forests; and many more is the priority that comes under sustainable development for reducing the environment conflict.
Nepal which is a developing country cannot sit without using its available resources, but it should use its resources in such a way that the problem of conflict will not arise due to resource scarcity. The role of institution is very crucial in this to make laws and to enforce them is very important and at the same time commitment from citizens will enhance the environmental care.
Political Ecology
Political ecology assumes that there is a dialectical unity between human beings and their environments. This means that environmental problems are shaped by social processes and these processes can include: Political economy, e.g. relations of production and class relations, gender relations, the state and its institutions, international political relations, e.g. colonialism and neo-colonialism. Similarly it also includes the architecture of knowledge, e.g. scientific and technical modifications of the environment. Despite the variety of factors that influence human/environmental relations, there is a chain of causality operating between these relations. The main idea behind the political ecology is that environmental problem in the whole world is due to social actions and political economic constraints rather than poor management, overpopulation and ignorance. This concept has been more inspired by theories of Marxian and Neo-Marxian development theories. Well this is quite contradict in the case of Nepal because the problem related with environment is due to increase in population and of course lack of proper management of natural resources is also one of the reason behind the environment conflict
Deep Ecology
Deep ecology is the modern way of life, based on the shifting away from the reality away from the reality exclusively in terms of human values and experiences established by environmental and green groups and movements. In deep ecology all life systems are sacred and valuable -- apart from their usefulness to human beings, All life evolved in the same way and thus, all are kin, with kinship obligations all species should be allowed to flourish and fulfill their evolutionary destinies. The paper does not sees the environmental conflict has occurred from this angle of lens but it is interesting to note that the Maoist Revolution has been given the name as “Green Roots of Revolution” which is anthropocentrism (and reformist approaches) that destroy nature. However, the transformation of consciousness is needed, replacing anthropocentrism with broader sense on the self.
Development (OTB)
Rostow’s Stages of Development
There are altogether five stages of Rostow’s Development and they are (a) traditional society, (b) preconditions for takeoff, (c) the take off, (d) drive to maturity and (e) the age of high mass consumption. Well this stages of Rostow’s been highly criticized by many scholars because it is not necessary that a country must follow this approach. Say for example, countries can move to high mass consumption stage from traditional society. In the context of Nepal and relating it with paper we are in transition from traditional stage to preconditions take off stage, as we are still dependent on agriculture with traditional tools. However, we could also be in third stage if we look at the growth pattern of urban areas only.
Development: desirable or alternative goals for society from environmental, social and economic view?
Development is seen from various perspectives ever since its inception by American President Harry Truman in 1948. However it’s also true that the population growth has either gone down or stabilized globally in contrast to what Malthus and Ehrlich had seen a couple of centuries ago. The question of whether development played key role for this result can’t be concluded, though it can be claimed, which is largely because of the adversely affect of development activities on human and environment.
Despite of the numerous adverse affects of development activities in terms of environmental degradations, ecological disturbance, the rising gap between the have and have-nots, the development concept has been effective in terms of stabilizing Nepal’s population growth. For example, the National Plans such as ninth and tenth plan, where a lot of emphasis has been given to the concept of two children and easy availability of family planning related devices as well as standard material health services to the people.
Development Trap: Vicious Circle of Poverty
The cycle of poverty has been defined as a phenomenon where poor families become trapped in poverty for at least three generations. These families have either limited or no resources. It is also known as an inhuman cycle of not being able to come out of poverty. The poverty cycle is usually called "development trap" when it is applied to countries. Once in the cycle of low incomes, savings, and investment the inhabitants of LDCs, the barriers to development are strong. There are many cultural, social, economic and political factors preventing people from being free from the burden of poverty such as the burden of debt, and the increasing demands of the growing population. This results when poor people do not have the necessary resources to get out of poverty, such as financial capital, education, or connections. In other words, poverty-stricken individuals experience disadvantages as a result of their poverty, which in turn increases their poverty. As Rostow states that it is possible to put the societies into different five stages so that we can distinguish among them.
Nepal’s condition is very poor. As the population is increasing the demand of the people are increasing simultaneously so is the poverty. Low productivity, low income, low investment, low saving is the condition of Nepal and the vicious cycle of poverty trap is getting bigger with the timeframe. As a result in the long run these low income people and marginalized groups revolt against the state so the conflict will arise.
Post development
The emerging thought in the field of development arose during period of 1980’s as a criticism to the development that the past fifty years of development has not done anything. Moreover, there is chaos and disorder in the society, the poor is getting poorer and the rich getting richer. Therefore, the development that is taking place today is not good enough so the transformation of development is needed is the main idea of post development. Arturo Escobar is one of the strong followers of post development. The ideas expressed in Encountering Development have highlighted some of the spatial outcomes of the hegemonic ‘development’ discourse since colonial times. However, the post development is also criticized by many that as it did not show tell what that form of development instead of present one is. In Nepal’s seeing the present level of political stability and unrest in the society coupling with environmental conflict there is need of new form of development but it is unclear what would be that new development which will bring drastic change in the society.
















Discourse Analysis
The aim of discourse analysis is to reveal the ontological and epistemological premises which are embedded in language, and which allows a statement to be understood as rational or interpreted as meaningful. Discourse analysis is the study of rationality and how it is expressed in a particular historical context. It challenges researchers to question policy making processes, how dialogue takes place, and how power relations produce dominant discourses and marginalizes other. Such questions require researchers to be reflective, querying the research in ways that they may not otherwise consider.

Interactions of resource managers with the public and special interest groups are frequently
characterized by conflict and bitterness (Vining and Ebreo, 1991). Moreover environmental conflicts are becoming increasingly frequent and difficult to resolve. Disputes regarding what constitute appropriate resource management regimes arise as pressures to increase productivity clash with the realization that protecting environmental quality is both desirable and necessary.

This paper represents a step in the development of a process designed to assist in the recognition and resolution of environmental management disputes. The discourse analysis method is introduced as a way to examine the language used between protagonists in a dispute, with a view to developing a better understanding of the different perspectives and perceptions they hold.

The findings of this research were similar with that of print media reports of conflict arising when analyzing the high levels of unequal distribution of resources. This caused debate and segregation of views within the community for the utilization of forest resources, the one with less and vulnerable from the use of resources position itself being adopted by many community members resulting in the formation of local environmental lobby groups. These differing perspectives can be better understood if the difference in underlying values, beliefs and attitudes within the community are taken into account (Lynne et al. 1987, Svedin 1998). If not actively recognized and effectively managed, the resulting conflicts can produce a barrier that prevents effective resource management. Rollo (1997) argues that existing resource management decision making processes do not provide adequate mechanisms to address and mitigate potentially destructive conflicts.
The application of discourse analysis could be a useful mediation tool for environmental dispute resolution because it provides a systematic and substantive basis for a mediator to develop better understandings of each party’s position, and thus be able to engage more productively in the dispute negotiation process.

After analyzing the paper on environment and conflict, some of the insights occur between the ‘have’ and ‘have-nots’. Discourse analysis has been introduced as an approach developed over many years, with a simplified version of it used in this paper. Based on the analysis provided, there is clear evidence of substantial differences in the underlying perspectives about the proper use of natural resources as most of the people in Nepal dependent on agriculture for their survival. Techniques that could be used in support of such uses are currently under development by the authors. Furthermore, discourse analysis can also be useful in public policy where all the decisions are made related with the environment.









Judgment:
I have chosen one “Environment and Conflict” Out Side the Box theoretical framework for the judgment of the paper.
As the paper mostly talks about the resources which is an economic term and at the same time it also illustrates that there are no proper institutions and mechanism for penalizing the wrong doers. Most of the groups are favored by the government; whereas the importance of other groups is neglected. The situation of conflict arises in the society when these neglected groups in the long run take the violent steps in meeting their demands. Similarly, the high competition for ownership and power with the increase in population size also leads towards the environment conflict in the society.
The linkage between environment and politics is known for a very long time. But recently it has changed its character. For the first time, on such a large scale, it has been turned note of possibility of conflicts caused by environmental factors. There are a few reasons for that situation. First of all, proceeding degradation of the environment has changed its role in people’s life. Societies have felt stronger the environmental limitations which has been caused by deepening resource scarcity. Moreover, the population growth also increases scarcities of
renewable resources. In connection with that, the tensions, and cleavages and in consequences – conflicts and violent conflicts are rising.

Conflicts over agricultural land have to be seen as environmental only when the land becomes an object of struggle as a result of soil erosion, climate change, changes of river flows or any other form of environmental degradation. Therefore, territorial conflicts or wars with the goal of more equal land distribution cannot be regarded as the environmental conflicts, because their sources are not connected with any kind of environmental deterioration.

In a society like ours where the issues of environment conflict are separated as stated above rather they are mixed up with each other as a result. For instance, institutional failure to control the environment is linked with other environment conflicts too.

A conflict can be rank among environmental conflicts just in case when unequal land distribution becomes for example a source of soil overuse. Thus, the main cause of environmental conflict is ‘environmental scarcity’,
That is scarcity of renewable resources. There are three sources of it:
– Environmental change,
– Population growth,
– Unequal social distribution of resources.
The first term, environmental change, refers to a human-induced decline in the quantity or quality of a renewable resource. The second, population growth, reduces a resource distribution among more and more people. The third, unequal social distribution of resources, relates to concentration of resource in the hands of a few people. At present, it is supposed that environmental effects do not lead directly to conflicts. They rather produce several social effects. As in the case of Maoist Revolution in Nepal could be the example. In connection with that, some difficulties with identification of environmental origins of conflicts should be noticed. First of all, environmental causes of conflict are interrelated with other causes in most cases. Moreover, conflicts caused by environmental factors usually do not manifest directly their environmental origin. In spite of it, environmental scarcities are already contributing to violent conflicts in many parts of the developing world, in Latin America, too. Some parts of that region have already serious problems which result from shortages of water, forests, and especially fertile land.

A case study from Latin America, there is two examples of violent conflicts which could be linked with environmental causes. The first one is the case of the „Soccer War” between Salvador and Honduras. Although the environmental origins of this conflict are not clearly visible in the initial stage, it was considered that it could be the traditional territorial conflict, because the border between Salvador and Honduras has been under dispute since the Spanish arrival to Central America. On June 15, 1969, after a large influx of Salvadoran refugees into Honduras, the border dispute transformed into a battle between the two countries. Salvador invaded neighboring Honduras primarily to prevent Honduras from expelling its illegal immigrants, and to force it to accept immigrants in the future. An environmental analysis of the origins of conflict between Salvador and Honduras is appropriate for several reasons. Salvador appears to be a classic case of overpopulation. The continued acceleration of human population growth increased pressure on the country’s natural resources. Environmental degradation attributed to the growth of human population included:
- the destruction of the indigenous natural habitats of the country,
- accelerated soil erosion which affects an estimated 77% of Salvador’s land area (DURHAM 1977)

Country like Nepal largely dependent on agriculture for their livelihood with the increase in population the pressure on the agricultural base was a serious problem for two reasons. First, the degradation of soil and loss of cropland were major threats to the national economy. Second, it threatened the survival of the great number of the population.
However, the reasons for which the agricultural production was not sufficient for growing number of population are more complex. Food crops consistently lost in competition for surface area with more profitable export crops. One of the major causes of the land pressure and food scarcity was therefore the allocation of substantial fertile areas of the landscape to the cultivation of cash crops (mainly coffee, cotton) at the expense of domestic food production.

In Latin America the 1969 “Soccer War” was a result of heightened tensions caused by growing demand of cropland. It became scarce resource because of excessive land use and in consequence soil erosion. The conflict was not only based on ethnic problems, but rather on a fundamental need to survive.

In the present context of 21st century the environmental conflicts are not common they are already the fact in the contemporary world, though it is an emerging issue for Nepal. The degradation and depletion of environmental resources is only one source of environmental scarcity. Two other important sources are population growth and unequal resource distribution. Scarcity often has its greatest social impact when these factors interact. As environmental scarcity becomes more severe, some societies will have a progressively lower capacity to adapt. Moreover, frequency of the environmental conflicts will probably jump sharply in the next decades as scarcities rapidly worsen in many parts of the world. The most dangerous for the future security are scarcities of cropland and fresh water.

Furthermore, environmental conflicts, environmental scarcities are an important force leading to tensions and clashes. Scarcity caused powerful groups in society to increase in their own favor the inequities in the distribution of resources. Besides, ecosystem vulnerability often contributes to environmental scarcity.





















Synthesis:
Environment conflict which is becoming the global issue and the research on it shows that there are different reasons that are behind the environment conflict. With the uprising in population the demands for scarce resource will grow up and this creates different players in the society who for the benefit of their own desire controls the much of the resources. The tension between the haves and have-nots will arise as a result of the clashes between different groups or societies.
Nepal, before the emancipation of democracy, a large area of land being controlled by the some elite groups of people, the situation is not different even today. The landlords still exploit the poor farmers who don’t own any land. However, after the Maoist movement (1996-2006) there is a great shift in this pattern, but there is another form of exploitation which is not seen from outside. Politics on natural resources is increasing at a constant speed and it is benefiting only the small groups of people who are close with the government officials. Scarcity of resources will lead to the vulnerable situation and can create havoc in the society if it not checked timely.
As sources of scarcities of renewable resources the most influential was growth of population number and unequal distribution of resources among society. High population growth and an influx of migrants caused increased demand
for cropland. However, that factor coexisted with a long-standing unequal distribution of land. Soil degradation and in consequence deepening environmental scarcity was localized in the Central Highlands.
Three different types of environmental scarcities.
The first, demand-driven scarcity was caused by population growth and per capita resource consumption. The number of population grew because of high birth rate as well as because of an influx of immigrants.

The second type is supply-driven scarcity. In this case it was caused by degradation and depletion of environmental resources. In Chiapas, the crucial environmental resources to development of conflict were forests and cropland. Land degradation began with forest removal and was continued with unsustainable agricultural practices

The third type of environmental scarcity which contributed to conflict is structural scarcity. It was caused by an unequal distribution of resources that affected less powerful groups in the society. It is the case in Nepal where the resources were not distributed uniformly affecting to the groups of people who are not in power. Moreover, the centralized policy of power to own and consume the natural resources is also one of the reasons for environment conflict in Nepal. Take for example the land owners who are mostly the rich people who owns near about 60% of land by just 5-6% of people, this unequal distribution of land creates tension in the farmers who don’t own any land as a result the situation of conflict will arise.

The problem is just emerging in Nepal and there are many challenges that need to be solved in time. The rapidly increasing population needs to be checked so that the pressure on natural resources could be lessened. The institutional mechanisms must be strong enough to penalize any group who violates the law. Taking the example of urban environment where the scarcity of water and land is already becoming a problem and the power game has already started to play its dirty game in the society. Therefore it is important to give priorities or must decentralize its facilities in other areas of the county also, so that the pressure on urban hub can be reduced. For instance, people tend to stay in Kathmandu city as there all the facilities that a modern individual wants to enjoy whereas, this is lacking in other area of the country. If the facilities are available in other areas also than the urban chaos could be reduced and the overall development of the country can be achieved. In Nepal the development is in different stages as put forward by Rostow in his five different stages of development. Rural Nepal is in first stage where as the Urban in second stage, these sorts of development do create conflict in the society.








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