This paper examines the role of environmental degradation as the major causation of decade long conflict in Nepal. Soil erosion, deforestation, fragile mountain environment, demographic changes and shrink per capita land holding have led to massive impact in the life’s of rural Nepalese especially in far and mid western hilly region of Nepal Maoist insurgency begun in 1996.

This paper has used two theoretical lances one is environmental degradation perspective and another is social movement and vulnerable contest. Environmental degradation framework sees ecology as ultimate solution for the environmental degradation were as the social and vulnerable theoretical lances indicates the contemporary social causes of conflict.

Paper has been analyzed with the different analytical frameworks. The linkages and the relationship with population basics, natural resources, development discourses. Different theories like IPAT, Himalayan degradation theory, conflict theory, role of the private sector in conflict, climate change and vulnerability contest, sustainable biological abstraction model, institution and political economy, ecology and political economy has been related.

The paper based on The Green Root for the Red Rebellion has analyzed and concluded the ultimate causes of conflict as environmental degradation without denying the social vulnerability.

Key words: Environmental degradation, conflict, natural resources, Nepal.

Summary

The Maoist armed struggle in Nepal has commonly been presented as a political and socioeconomic problem. The causes of the armed struggle are proximate to many scholars, many highlighting poverty, and inequitable distribution of wealth, social injustice and chronic failure of development efforts. These are the most common causes of conflict in most developing countries as well. The much needed policy tool by the state to diffuse conflict is thus the provision of tangible development where poor benefits from state development intervention. However, Exclusion from larger social, economic and political institutions may be a necessary but not sufficient cause of a conflict. On this response from state, Bhurtel and Ali, Vandana Shiva, Anne Ehrlich and Myers are some scholars in security studies that have argued that environmental degradation is the ultimate cause of civil strife in many parts of the world. In the context of Nepal, such analysis often fails to appreciate the complex inter-linkage between environmental degradation, prosperity and poverty in the hills. The history of deprivation conflicts around the world indicates that rebellions are likely to occur in remote and marginalized regions, which are often plagued by erosion, resource degradation and depletion and hence increasing scarcity of renewable resources.

Bhurtel and Ali have explored the causes accelerating the degradation of the environment that threatens the livelihoods of millions of poor people in the hills of Nepal. Such environmental degradation coupled with demographic changes widened socio-economic disparities especially in the form of access to sufficient food and land among peoples in the Mid and Far Western development regions of Nepal and indirectly led to the Maoists insurgency in these regions.

The methodological constraints to establish an independent variable of the environmental degradation with respect to which other variables change with time and finally lead to violent conflicts is however difficult. The lack of empirical base on the studies conducted by former ecologists, arguing for environmental degradation as ultimate cause of conflict, has been also one reason why their analysis have not been widely accepted in policy making circles. This study relies on time series data published by Nepal government although the quality of such data is not fully reliable.

Nepal’s embark on development process was not a bright start. The country has a dark period of Rana regime, followed by autocratic Panchayat system. The democratic process has a very late start only since 1990 and again the country was marred by Maoist insurgency from 1996. It is important to start with development history of Nepal mainly because Nepal’s experience with development has only been the selection of development projects on ad-hoc basis, subject to availability of development aid without regard to overall integration, socio-economic justification and long range sustainability. Because of this haphazard development intervention, the development gap between the mountains and the Terai widened. After 1990, political instability took front seat and economic development had to take a back seat. The major political party NC was blamed for leaving its “socialist agenda” and thus donor driven economic reforms and liberalization were conducted in great rush. Hasty experimentation with market reform, however, did not help alleviate endemic poverty of the country and more and more people extracted further natural resource to cope up with their daily livings. This further degraded the environment aspect of Nepal. Amidst this backdrop, Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) started so called “People’s War” in 12 February 1996. The insurgency was based in Maoist Principle and it should be noted that Mao’s original Cultural Revolution had appalling environmental consequences and indeed nature was abused quite perfidiously in that context. The environmental dimension of poverty in Nepal is mainly articulated around Fragile Mountain Environment, Deforestation, Soil Degradation, Demographic changes and shrinking per capita cultivated land.

Environmental carrying capacity of mountain regions of Nepal and all over world is very low, and therefore with repeated, high intensity use of limited resources and the chances of irreversible damage to the environment remain high. Proximate causes of depleting limits of fragile mountain habitats in Nepal could be a variety of human intervention, such as over extraction of mountain resources, over cropping and over grazing and disappearing traditional techniques of agriculture. As a consequence, deforestation and soil degradation, erosion, flooding, landslides are becoming frequent, while necessary crop yields are declining.

The livelihood of rural poor completely depends on forests and hence forests of Nepal are once of the heavily exploited natural resources. Population growth, growing livestock numbers and poor management are all contributing to forest degradation in Nepal. The fragmentation of agriculture land as well as high increase of livestock population, leading to over grazing of high mountains of western and mid-western of Nepal is the major cause of soil erosion and desertification. The country has also witnessed three fold increases in its population since 1952/54 from 8.5 million to 23 million in 2001. Nepal’s population is projected to reach about 60 million by the end of the next century. Being a country with limited resources, Nepal certainly does not have the means to cope with such a Malthusian increase in population.

Increasing population and constant loss of renewable resources has a huge negative impact on mountain people. Food production is declining; land productivity remains stagnant indicating land degradation and excessive use of natural resources. Out of 16 mountain districts, 13 districts had negative food balance in 1985 which reached to 16 by 1995. This all has perpetuated poverty in Nepal, which not only has a spatial distribution but also social. Lower caste and indigenous people are often small land holders who gradually transform into landless workers relying on scarce wage employment.

Indications, therefore, are such that environmental degradation of the fragile hills and mountains could be as the ultimate cause of Maoist insurgency. The ecological degradation widened resource scarcity in the form of people’s access to fertile land. Lasting resolution effort of conflict can be found by considering environmental criteria and preventing depleting natural resource.

Authorial Context:

Jugal Bhurtel has done his PhD in environmental engineering and management. He is a widely renowned person as political analyst. He lived long time in Russia had has a firsthand experience of Soviet politics. He is interested in analyzing the conflict through the eyes of environmental causes.

Bhurtel is associated with Institute for the technical training center Nepal. His article Green Root for the Red Rebellion has been published from two perspectives; one is environmental degradation and another social movement and vulnerability context. Tarun Tapasi by the Lekhanath Poudyal is his favorite book.

http://www.policyinnovations.org/innovators/people/data/:v_get/84935/saleem_ali/_res/id=sa_Picture

Saleem H. Ali holds the PhD in Environmental planning. He was born in Pakistan and has worked various parts of the world. Presently he is professor of University of Vermont Rubenstein School of Natural Resources and Adjunct professor of Brown University, Watson Institute for International Studies.

International figure Saleem H Ali has jointly written his article with Bhurtel, Green Root for the Red Rebellion has been published from two perspectives; one is environmental degradation and another social movement and vulnerability context. Beside this Huang, Ganlin, Weiqi Zhou and Saleem H Ali. “Spatial patterns and economic contributions of mining and tourism in biodiversity hotspots: A case study in Yunnan China” Forthcoming in Ecological Economics, Summer, 2011, Puppim de Oliveira, Jose Antonio, and Saleem H. Ali. Gemstone mining as a development cluster: A study of Brazil's emerald mines. Resources Policy Accepted for publication, in press – Summer 2011, Ali, Saleem H. “Mining in China: A Primary Ecological Concern,” Washington DC: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, China Environment Forum Issue 10, June, 2009, Ali, Saleem H. “Water Politics in South Asia: Transitioning from technocratic cooperation to lasting security" Journal of International Affairs, Vol.61, No. 2, 2008 are his latest publications.

Subject Paper Context

Nepal had gone from Maoist insurgency form 12 February 1996. Maoist insurgency prevailed one decade which was settled from Comprehensive Peace Agreement in 2006. There had been produced number of the paper related to the cause of the Maoist Insurgency, however only few paper has been indicated cause of the Maoist insurgency as environmental degradation. This paper written by Jugal Bhurtel and Saleem H. Ali, The Green Roots of the Red Rebellion analyzed the actual cause of the Maoist insurgency as the ultimate consequence of the environmental degradation in hilly regions of Nepal.

This paper has been nicely constructed in five parts with the logical construction that are:

v Introduction

— Rationality of the paper

— Methodological constraints

v Background

— Country Geographical Background

— Brief Political History

— Maoist Insurgency

v Environmental dimension

— Fragile Mountain Environment

— Deforestation

— Soil Degradation

— Demographic changes Shrinking per capita land holding

v Consequences of the environmental degradation

v Situation of poverty across the geographical regions

Paper begins with the date of the insurgency that was begun in 12 February 1996 and introduces the loss of life followed by the international concern such as United State of America and other neighbor who made playground of geo-political actors. Paper has presented prevailing and widely accepted social cause of the conflict that are Political and socio-economic problem, Endemic and persistent poverty, Inequitable distribution of wealth, Lopsided regional policies, Social injustice and political disparity, Chronic failure of Government and cultural cleavage then this it has shows the environmental degradation of the hilly region of Nepal and insufficient food supply which ultimately caused the Maoist insurgency.

Theoretical and Analytical category

Broadly, The Green Roots of Red Rebellion has two analytical categories, one is social and another is environmental.

Green Roots for the Red Rebellion from Social Analytical perspective

Maoist Movement was initiated form the geographical areas which were socially and economically deprived. This problem has been commonly presented as political and socioeconomic roots. Endemic and persistent poverty, inequitable distribution of the wealth and lopsided regional policies, social injustice or political disparity as well as chronic failure of the governance at the center are perceived as the most visible and significant precursors of the armed rebellion in Nepal, Bhurtel and Ali (2009). There is existence of the multiple caste, language culture and diverse geographical region in Nepal. The improper allocation of the resources and the negligence to the remote area has prepared the ground for the Maoist revolution. The linkage of the resource allocation through ethnographical relationship, Uprety (2004) had led to more dissatisfaction toward the existing state mechanism.

The failure of the governance and socio-economic grievances was developing as catalyst for the conflict, Wennmann (2009). During the early days of the Maoist movement marginalized groups expectations for the political participation and economic development were neglected. The other factors that fostered Maoist conflict are failure of the government to deliver promises, and increasing corruption in public sector, and the increased interest of the rural communities towards the political alternatives, Pfaff-Czarnecka (2004,P.167).

Lack of the industries and technological advancement together with high unemployment rate, and the dependence in agriculture were the reality of 90s was which prepared their background for Maoist the conflict. Due to the Feudal land structure those who worked in farm had no land and those who had land were exploiting the workers. The existence of the Kamaiya, Haruwa Charuwa, Hailya and not being able to obtain their right had led to seek an alternative party for establishing their right which sentiment was captured by the Maoist. The feeling of the people that war is need for stopping feudalism supported the Maoist conflict, Uprety (2006).

Socially Nepali has been portrayed as war like people. History is written as brave and loyal people and has fought against East India Company that ruled India and later on recruited as fighter in Second War. The indigenous people like Magar, Rai, Limbu and so called low caste people had significant participation in Maoist conflict that united and fought for obtaining the indigenous state promoted by the Maoist leaders. The decision taken in 1999 prohibiting other language to use as official language VDCs, Municipality infuriated non Nepali speaking people and further supported Maoist Conflict with the feeling that Khas are dominating others Shrestha (2003). Further social reformation that Maoist targeted during the early period such as closing gambling, punishing theft and snatching the property of the feudal lords and distributing to poor, raising the voice against the un-touch ability help them to make their base strong.

Green Roots for the Red Rebellion: Environmental Perspective

Social conflict is the product of multiple causes. The root of the conflict cannot be explained with single reason, and has several linkages between environments, society and culture. Hence we cannot obtain the solution from mono-causal rationalization, Bhurtel and Ali (2009). During the 1900s, the time when Maoist conflict begun, Nepal not only had the turmoil in politics and governance but also had several problems related to the environment, livelihood due to the climate change, distribution and irrigation.

The paper Green root for the Red Rebellion explored the causes accelerating the degradation of the environment that threatened the livelihoods of the many poor living in hills of Nepal. Furthermore the papers argue that environmental degradation was coupled by the demographic change. This change further widened socio-economic disparity and serve as the root for the conflict. The poverty and the difficulties to access to the food in far and mid-western development region, indirectly led the Maoist insurgency. The poverty that persistent in hill of Nepal has ecological roots.

However the methodological constraints lie to establish the direct linkage of conflict and environmental degradation. The long debated effects of the ecological degradation on poverty and conflict has been fragmented due to the unavailable reliable data. At the same the time it is very difficult to establish an independent variable of the degradation with respect to the other variable which is changing in time and finally lead to the conflict. The quantitative demonstration of the direct link with environment and conflict is very hard to achieve.

The geographical structure of the Nepal which is mostly covered with the hill has comparatively low carrying capacity. High increase of the population (15 Million in 1951 to 18.5 million in 1991), CBS (1951, 1991) and the three meals in a day to hardly one meal a day, Bhurtel and Ali (2009) in far and mid western Nepal had prepared the ground for the Maoist insurgency. Massive deforestation within last 15-16 years form loosing 24% forest, UNEP (2001) has deprived the poor who depended in jungle products for their livelihood like fodder, firewood, wild fruits (gitta, Bhakur mainly consumed in far and mid western hill). At the same time not only the population was increasing but also the number of the livestock was increased (cattle, buffalo and goats increased by 5.77, 8.30 and 9.37% respectively), Tulachan (199), which caused over pressure upon the land through over grazing and over populating. The over abstraction of the natural resources from mountain and traditional techniques of the agriculture dwindled niches advantages, Kasperson et.al (1997). Soil erosion, soil degradation, demographic changes and shrinking per capita cultivated land had feed the Maoist insurgency.

Multiple Theoretical Lenses Analysis

Development Discourses Analysis and Green Root for Red Rebellion

Development is moving from unfavorable condition to favorable condition. It has been explained as the positive changes in society. The modern concept of the development started at 1949 when Harry True Man come with the division of the world in two parts; Developed and underdeveloped. Then early history of the development is focused in economic development.

During the mid 50s western countries come with the big push model to develop the underdeveloped country. In the basis of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) further division took place such as undeveloped, least developed, developing. The new terminology and rival vocabulary keep on pilling in the dictionary of development. New approaches of the development were developed and later on, in counter to the economic development period post development, sustainable environment friendly development, social participatory development model developed.

They economic development model focused on growth theories. The Harrods Domtar growth model, Lewis Growth Model, Solo Growth model, is some of the pioneer model that was developed on the basics of the economic theories. Lewis model explains the transformation of the agrarian society to the modern society. The labor force mobilization in the industry and the transforming the saving that come from the traditional economy to the modern sector are the core factors of Lewis Model. Harrods Domtar model is more focused on output and the capital to output ratio is the core for growth. The solo model is includes the technology is development model.

The credit goes to the Adam Smith, who is revered as the father of the economic for developing the economic theories. In 1776 he comes with a book called “Inquiry to the Nature and cause of the Wealth of the Nation” which introduced the market base economy with the division of the labor. Division of the labor was focused for improving their skills and obtains greater output through proper allocation of the resources. After Adam Smith, Keynesian, new classical, neo Keynesian and Monetarist economic model were developed.

However all the economic development model was somehow unable to achieve the desired output? The foreign aid that was provided by the western nations has not been able to eradicate the poverty in Africa, India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Myanmar etc. Still the 4 billion people, Pralad (2006) are under the poverty line.

Despite the economic development model and the foreign aid the poor are getting poorer and richer are getting richer. Nepal has been achieving foreign aid but that aid has increased the gap between rich and poor. The development model that is based in the economic development has drawn the line between rich and poor.

The human relationship are degrading day by say. The bond of the love is measured in terms of their wealth. With the aid that provided to the society has made have and have not. For an example if we provide a water tap to any community than that some are called with having tap and some without tap. It further widens the gap between those who have access and have no access. The development budget that was forecasted has been mostly used by the richer class.

After the 1986 Nepal, had followed the path shown by the World Bank (WB) and International Monetary Fund (IMF) for economic growth. Model has forgotten the environmental factor in their model. This path has lead Nepal nowhere in growth but to the verge of the insurgency. The aid that Nepal received had not been able to utilize in the development of nation. The insufficient knowledge of the environment and context has obstructed the desired goal of the foreign aid. Such situation lead to not having two meals in a day, Bhurtel and Saleem (2009) has contributed growing seeds of the insurgency.

Institution and Political economy and Green Root for Red Rebellion

Institution is humanly devised constraint and the rules of the game. The institution has the key role in developing the countries. The concept of the political economy started from the time of the classical economists of the 18^th and 19^th centuries. However it was hard to pinpoint when it was originated. Major developers of the political economics include William Petty, Adam Smith, David Ricardo, Thomas Malthus, and John Stuart Mill, and Johann Heinrich von Thünen. This political economy is also has been seen as the first modern school of economic thought. Some authors, such as John Maynard Keynes expand the definition of classical economics and also Karl Marx’s theory is linked with the political economics.

Nepalese political institution grew closely with the people but unable t o uplift the participation inclusively which caused the turmoil in political environment. Revolution in 1950, 1990 were unable to address the actual need of the people. Political economy is also talks about the gender relationship.

Main function of the institution is to reduce the transition cost. The reduction of the transition cost and increase efficiency is means to achieve output. The economy that depends upon the natural resources are not sustainable as the matter of fact, natural resources are subject to end.

Especially after they cold war, Nepal continued the autocratic regime saying that it has especial typological environment and it needs own type of regime that fits it’s soil and weather. This autocratic government over depended in forest and natural resource destruction, it hardly introduced any form of the institutional reform, empower the institution and made county able to stand in other form resources. The institutions were time-worn with respect to the political economy. The individual behavior and choices with modern political science emergence was unable to incorporate the need of the time.

Green Root for the Red Rebellion can be seen through the eye of the institution and political economic as that situation of Nepal was institutionally week. The political player took the advantage and feudal practice exploited many poor form the mid and far western hill prepared the ground for geopolitical actors.

Institution and Political Ecology and Green Roots for the Red Rebellion

Political ecology assumes that there is a dialectical unity between the human being and ecology. Environmental problem are directly related to each other. Human world is responsible for the destruction of the biodiversity. The environmental problems are shaped by the social process, Tuladhar (SN 2, 2011). This social process includes

v Political economy, e.g. relations of production and class relations.

v Gender relations.

v The state and its institutions.

v International political relations, e.g. colonialism and neo-colonialism.

v The architecture of knowledge, e.g. scientific and technical modifications of the environment.

v Despite the variety of factors that influence human/environmental

This political ecology has been intertwined with the political economy too. The theory of the O’Connor: dual contradiction of capitalism explains about the dialectical unity of human and nature which is shaped by the relationship of class, power and state actions. The understanding of the relationships of production is important with respect to the ecological and political economy. The force of production forces the environment. Any form of the industrial production or natural resources abstraction will cause the impact in the environment.

Social relationships that are shaped with respect to the land, labor, inputs, and patterns of surplus extraction, decision making, and authority to investment are the concerned thematic area of the political ecology. This has been done through locally, regionally, nationally and internationally.

The Green Root for the Red Rebellion has shown the ecological situation of the mid and far western hilly region. There had been much deforestation; encroachment and over exploitation of the natural resources had caused the imbalance relationship between ecology and environment with respect to human settlement.

International Dynamics Green Root for Red Rebellion

Conflict originates from the various causes. It is hard to pinpoint a single cause as the root of the conflict. The Conflict Resolution, International Cooperation and Development book presents that, after the end of cold war, the world has witnessed large number of intra state war rather than interstate. From 1960 to 1990, there have been six inter state wars but from 1990 to 2000, there have been 13 interstate conflicts of massive scale. A DFID report suggests that two third of developing countries have one or other form of conflict at national level. Conflict that was escalating in other part of the world during this period; especially South Asia has impact in Nepal as well. The idea of armed struggle in Nepal was inherited from Charu Majumdhar who initiated Naxalist civil war in Nepal get boost from international recognition by RIM and also from some formal and informal talks with Tamil LTTE in Srilanka. Although Nepali warring factions mentioned that conflict or revolution cannot be imported or exported; to some extent, the regional and global conflict scenario provoked and provided moral support to Nepali conflict, Adhikari (2008). The other Naxalwari fight in neighboring country India may had inspired the revolution to Nepali Maoist.

Private Sector and conflict and Green Root for Red Rebellion

Private sector is one of the players in conflict generation as well as conflict resolution. There has been number of the evidence with respect to the conflict resolution as well as conflict generation by the private sector. The conflict that has been on going in the Pakistan is one of the examples which indicate the involvement of the private sector in conflict generation. The flirty rich people living aboard are providing the economic support for the militancy. The case of the El Salvador is another example of such conflict where the conflicting party and government were ready to resolve the conflict but the private sector of obscuring the process with the thought that the resolve of the conflict will enforce the trade union law and the full salary and benefit payment will reduce their revenue.

The conflict of the Sri Lanka was resolved in the initiation of the private sector. At begin a small number of the tourism industry owner formed Sri Lanka First (SLF) which started to play the role of intermediation between conflicting party and government. In the same way the long conflict that ruined thousands of life and infrastructure in the South Africa was resolved with the initiation of the private sector.

Motive of the private sector is always profit oriented. Some business such as urban housing, import of the food and beverage were prosperous during the conflict period. So whether those people involvement was for extension of the conflict or to resolve need to be observed closely. Again, in Nepal there have been a large number of the business people who are involving to deceive the tax to the government. Recent news shows that 4 billon taxes have been evicted. That business house always wants to diversify the focus to other issues. Conflict can be one of the tools for such type of the business man. So this dynamics should b explored.

In context of the Green Root of the Red rebellion, the dynamics of the private sector should be further explores.

Natural Resource

Poverty and Environment with Green Root for Red Rebellion

Nepal is still one of the poorest countries in the world, ADP (2008). During the period when Maoist insurgency started more than 42% people were poor. Poor are more dependent upon the natural resources. Poor have to dependent upon the natural resources abstraction for their livelihood like firewood, fodder. Over dependency upon the natural resources increases the vulnerability of poor which makes them to think alternative for their livelihood. When they fell that they are exploited and does not get the opportunity for better livelihood, they prepare themselves for any kinds of means to run their livelihood.

Environmental factors have direct effect upon the health of the poor. They can not afford and sophistication and preventive measure as their livelihood is already vulnerable. The absolute dependence in natural resource is associated with the productivity of land forest and water. Soil degradation is linked with the agriculture. Low productivity and change biodiversity will further lead to deforestation linked with series of problem associated with environmental degradation and natural disasters. The outburst of many glacial lakes, massive deforestation, flood, drought are some of the reality appeared during the uprising of the Maoist conflict.

Himalaya Degradation Theory and Green Root for Red Rebellion

Himalayan degradation theory explains the population growth as the cause of the environmental degradation. Increase population will demand more food and more forest products. This will lead to the clearing the forest and will lead to soil erosion, landslide, hydrological disruptions and use animal dung as fuel which is used as the manure for the agricultural production.

This theory goes back to the Jacks and Whyte- “A world survey of soil erosion” which indicated rapid population growth as the exploitation for the natural resource and catastrophic erosion that scan the foothill of the Himalaya. However land degradation is not just the natural phenomena but is the ultimate cause of the social problem, Blaikie and Brookfield (..). again In contrast Edward Hyams (1952) connected the environmental situation to social relation, irrespective of population, Pokharel et.al (SN 5, 2011).

The Green Root for the Red Rebellion shows the massive soil erosion, topsoil erosion in Karnali basin which is directly linked to the theoretical model.

Conflict Analysis

The contemporary literature indicates the causes of the conflict as Neglect of Mid and Far west hills (Uneven Development) Urban Rural Disparity, Social Discrimination, Institutional Factors, Declining Economic Performance, Manipulation of Ethnic and Regional Identities, Proliferation of small arms, Regional and Global Conflict Drivers.

Mid and far western hills were neglected by the public sector as well as private sector. Very small proportion of the budget was allocated far and western development region. Al the development indicators like HDI, HPI are lower than other parts of the country. Poverty in Kathmandu is less than 3%, while Far Western region of Nepal has 78% of Poverty. (CBS, 2006). Urban areas get the priority in development process. Hardly any industries were established in rural areas. All the infrastructure development were concentrated in urban areas. The Hindu caste system created more discrimination towards the untouchable peoples. Most of the benefits were enjoyed by the higher cast. Nepalese people wanted to end the structural violence that has been perpetuated in Nepal. Sadly, these movements only change the actors not the structure. The wish of Functional institutions, that provides justice, security and effective public service delivery remain a dream. With biased institutional arrangements, the key positions only held by high caste people and Kathmandu centered development, Nepal was not going to achieve growth or more especially inclusive growth. While China and India were growing in Double digit, the Nepali per capita income is still less than US$250. There are five distinct topographies, ranging from high Himalayas to low lands. There are also some 100 officially recognized local languages and with this vast diversity in the country, the centralized and unitary system of ruling was very upsetting to most people. It was not also making sense to development partners that how can such a diverse country be ruled in unitary way. Several development plans were formulated but the result was often the non-implementation of the plan, because plans made in the center never worked at the local level. There are five distinct topographies, ranging from high Himalayas to low lands. There are also some 100 officially recognized local languages and with this vast diversity in the country, the centralized and unitary system of ruling was very upsetting to most people. It was not also making sense to development partners that how can such a diverse country be ruled in unitary way. Several development plans were formulated but the result was often the non-implementation of the plan, because plans made in the center never worked at the local level. After the end of cold war, the world has witnessed large number of intra state war rather then inter-state. From 1960 to 1990, there have been six inter state wars but from 1990 to 2000, there have been 13 inter state conflicts of massive scale. A DFID report suggests that two third of developing countries have one or other form of conflict at national level. The Naxalbari movement in India and militancy of Pakistan may have some implication Nepalese conflict.

Given the cause of the conflict of Nepal, the prevalent approaches to conflict transformation are: Actor transformation, Issue transformation, Rule transformation, Structural transformation.

Actor transformation means changes within the parties or the emergence of new players. Issues transformation means, finding common ground, which might require fundamental political changes within the parties. Rule transformation means changes the norms of the parties’ interaction. The Interim Constitution has replaced the Constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal 1990 and new rules are created for elections, party registration, Prime Minister assuming new head of the state and government, subordination of judiciary to the executive, etc. Structural transformation is the most significant way of changing the nature of the conflict. The nation’s historical identity rooted into Hindu religion, Nepali language, monarchy and unitary Hindu state has gone deep-seated transformation. Such agenda were provoked by the Maoist during the initiation of the insurgency.

However the above cause and transformation missed the linked with environmental degradation and

Climate change and Green Root for Red Rebellion

Climate change has been hot issues. There has been many livelihood threatened due to the climate change. A survey conducted by the Oxfam, 2009, in 14 communities of Nepal reports that the Nepal is facing climate change. These problem are regions are 41610 Landslide Nepal

getting Warmer, drier winter, lack of winter rain, Unpredictable monsoon, seasons are changing , Decline in food crops and food security, Rivers drier , lack of water for irrigation etc. , Cold waves in Terai destroying crops, Floods and inundation becoming common, Women are in the frontline of climate change. It suggests the solutions as Changing farming practices, improving, after management, Improving incomes. Nepal has experienced extreme spatial diversity resulting in equally extreme climatic variations. Thousands of micro climatic environments element are affected by the climate change. Nepal experienced some major weather and water related disasters between 1993 and 1998 when the seed of the conflict were uprising. Some of them are; 1993 mid mountain cloudburst and Floods, 1998 Rohini River and Other Terai Floods etc. The climate change is much affecting Poor country and Poor Sector and also is not able to cop it due to not having enough and sound technology. The developing country like Nepal’s agriculture is weather dependent. Untimely rain has caused more vulnerability to the poorer.

In contest to the Green Root for the Red Rebellion, the time when climate change and social vulnerability due to natural disaster took place has feed the uprising of the conflict the aid that was allocated for those who are suffer from the natural calamities were excluded. Most part of the budget has been used by those who have access.

Population and Natural Resources Basics

Demographic Transition Model and Maoist Conflict

Demographic Transition Model explains the how population changes due time. The stages of the DTM reflect transition of the birth and death rate of pre-industrial society towards the developed stages, and decreased population to stable population. This theory is based on an interpretation of demographic history developed in 1929 by the American demographer Warren Thompson (1887–1973). Thompson observed changes, or transitions, in birth and death rates in industrialized societies over the previous 200 years. Most developed countries are in stage 3 or 4 of the model; the majority of developing countries have reached stage 2 or stage 3. This transition involves four stages, or possibly five, Stage I -Pre industrial equilibrium (Birth Rate and Death rate are both high), Stage II –early industrialization (Birth Rate remains high, Death Rate is falling, Population begins to rise steadily), Stage III –Developed industrialization (Birth Rate starts to fall. Death Rate continues to fall. Population rising.), Stage IV-post industrial equilibrium (there is both low birth rates and low death rates. Death rates may remain consistently low or increase slightly due to increases in lifestyle diseases due to low exercise levels and high obesity and an aging population.

The paper Green root for the Red Rebellion has reflects the first stage of the population growth in Nepal. It is the Population that was only 15 million in 1951 has jumped to 18 million. This rapid increase in Population has caused the shortage of the resources.

Thomas Malthus population theory, critique by the Boserup and Green Root for Red Rebellion

Thomas Malthus was born in 1766 in a small town in Surrey, just south of London. His fathers had eight children. He used regularly met the renowned figures with Rousseau, Hume and Voltaire.

He is famous for the easy that he wrote under the heading the principle of population. His main postulation of easy (now known as Malthus’ Iron Law of Population): is the population increases in a geometric ratio, while the means of subsistence increases in an arithmetic ratio.

Malthus easy shows the relationship between food supply and the growth of the population. He assumes that when there is increased population than there arise food crisis and this crisis will lead to the natural disaster to control population. Malthus believed that natural disasters, wars and poverty (“positive checks”) were all necessary in order to keep a check on the population. In later editions, Malthus started to advocate abstinence and birth control in order to limit the population.

The picture attached to shows the relationship between the conflict and the population increase in Nepal. It reassembles the Malthusian doom. The food supply started to be in deficit during the 90s when insurgency started.

Later on Boserup come with another population theory that included the technological advancement in her model. This model takes population increase as the positive to the food production as well as environmental conservation as technology and better mode of production will be innovated.

Biological Sustainable theory and Carrying Capacity: Green Root for Red Rebellion

Biological sustainable exploitation theory explains regarding the interaction between human being and natural resource abstraction. The core of the theory is not making over exploitation over the natural resources. It describes three model of the exploitation that is:

A) High quota B) maximum sustainable yield and C) low quota.

High quota – It is the situation where the yield exceeds the population surplus production capability, which may be because of illegal hunting act or population’s resilience had been over estimated. It is the condition when the species over-exceeds the high quota, species will extinct.

Maximum Sustainability Yield – It is an alternative and seems more sensible in the maximum sustainability yield quota. But it is very risky target as it is impossible to get precise management of either surplus production or the population. In case if the population is or at smaller than expected maximum yield the quota will exceed its surplus production and will decline to zero.

D) Low quota – It is the condition when the certain species become extinct after reaching the population criteria. Exploiting at low quota indicates the growth to a stable equilibrium whereby we have sustainable exploitation.

The Green Root for the Red Rebellion has clearly described the high exploitation of the natural resource and that lead to the environmental degradation in hilly regions.

Judgment:

Green Roots of the Red Rebellion paper has been written with the different perspective than other contemporary conflict literature. Contemporary literature indicated the roots of the conflict in the social causes where as this paper beautifully presented the root cause as the environmental degradation. Again most paper argue the solution for conflict as Actor transformation, Issue transformation, Rule transformation, Structural transformation where as this paper seeks ultimate solution in environmental ecology.

The model reflects the Thomas Malthus model where the over population will have direct link with the food supply. The shortage of the food in mid and far western hill has grown the seed of the insurgency. The model developed by the Boserup which shows the positive aspect of the population growth for the innovation of technological enhancement and improved situation over natural resources is not fitted.

The theory of the Himalayan degradation is applicable in this paper’s argument. The fragile mountain environment and increased population from 15 million to 18 million has over abstracted the natural resources. The soil erosion in Karnali Basin has reduced the agricultural productivity. A person who had three meals a day has reduced to hardly one meal shows the fragile mountain scenario.

Sustainable biological abstraction theory has correlation to the paper where it rightly indicates that the carrying capacity is low throughout the mountainous region. High rate of the natural resource abstraction has turmoil the sustainability of biodiversity. However ambiguity arises as to who and what will be the model for the abstraction of such quota and who will decide it another difficulty are who will have the access to it?

The paper presented the ultimate cause of the conflict as the environmental degradation and rejected the contemporary conflict theories. But it is important to know how we can resolve the existing conflict. The methodology itself has limitation to the reliable data. In such situation how will it address the real cause of conflict?

Through the eye of the Institution and political economy, the paper does not analyze the cause of the economic deprivation and the haphazardness of the nation during the autocratic regime as well as the newly democratic government that was led by the higher cast and elites. The further segregation of the rebellion that mostly belongs to the indigenous groups is not done. Only the argument that the region where food supply and environmental degradation took place is the key to the insurgency may not justify the combatants that participated from food store of Tarai as well as economically well of Kathmandu Valley.

Though the paper has mentioned the prevailing contemporary arguments of social causes for conflict it have nowhere mention the role of the private sector. The dynamics of the private sector for sustaining and supported like in El Salvador, Pakistan or resolution in South Africa and Sri Lanka has got no space.

The multiple cast and ethnicity spatial, political exclusion have not been debated throughout the paper. The power structure and the trickle down approach for budgetary provision and the access to the resources may have added the flavor for conflict which has not been issue of the paper.

Writer has related Maoist insurgency to the international geopolitical actor who is making Nepal as playground. But they have provided only the account of United State of America. Who are the other actor and how they are playing is not clear. Degraded environment has been pointed out as the fostering element for the conflict but during the 1996 mountains were improving their environmental degradation through community forestry.

Liberation of 1990 and the labor act 1992 had opened the avenue of the Nepalese labor force to the global labor market. Nepalese migrants who went to foreign land were united for the changes of the nation and large amount of the finance was acquired by the Maoist insurgency which perspective is lacked. The migrants and the area where large number of migrants were found are the source of the inspiration of revolution, Sharma (2008).

However the paper has successfully provoked the environmental agenda for the conflict prevention. The relationship between the environment, ecology, livelihood and food security and the Human development is beautifully presented. Use of data evidence and logic are convincing and is a milestone for the conflict study from the environmental perspective.

Synthesis

The paper Green Root for the Red Rebellion has been written in the context of the Nepalese conflict that started from 12 February 2001. Volume of the books and scholastic arguments were produced in favor of social causes of the conflict but this paper beautifully brought the issue of the environmental degradation as the ultimate cause of the conflict.

Jugal Bhurtel and Saleem Ali are the authors of this paper. Both of them are renowned scholar with PhD. Jugal is associated with the Institute for Technical Training and Ali is professor at University of Vermont as well and adjunct professor at University of Brown.

Paper has indicated poverty has ecological roots. This paper lie methodological constraints to establish direct quantitative linkage between environmental degradation and conflict, however access to fertile land, forest products, irrigation facility and food helps to keep out of the poverty and ultimately conflict. Lasting solution of the conflict has environmental element.

The analytical theoretical perspectives used in the paper are environmental degradation and social and vulnerable context. It has been coherently analyzed with the multiple lances and theoretical approaches.

This paper has shown the relationship of the main paper Green Root for the Red Rebellion and concepts of the population theory of Malthusian, Sustainable biological abstraction model, Himalayan degradation theory, Demographic Transition Model as coherent models. Population theory developed by the Boserup is adversely applied. Different model of the conflict transformation that is contemporary which has not been secured their space in main paper are discussed. Other possible models such as climate change and vulnerability, international scenario of the conflict are correlated and debated with the core argument of Green Root for the Red Rebellion.

Green Root for the Red Rebellion has been able to raise a new debate over the issue of the conflict. Whether the ultimate cause conflict is just environmental degradation or not, writer has derived data evidence and fact related to the environment degradation during the uprising time of Maoist insurgency and has justified the different lance for analyzing the conflict issue.

_____________________________________________________________________

References:

Bhurtel, Jugal and Ali, Saleem H. 2009. The Green Roots of Red Rebellion: Environmental Degradation as the Ultimate cause of social Vulnerability and Militancy in Nepal. Kathmandu

Upreti, Bishnu R. 2004. The price of the Neglected: From Resource conflict to Maoist Insurgency in The Himalayan Kingdom. Kathmandu: Bhrikuti Academic Publication

Wennamann, Achim. 2009. Socio-Economic Inequalities and Peace in Nepal. Geneva: The Center on Conflict, Development and Peacebuilding

Pfaff-Czarnecka, Joanna. 2004. “High Expectations, Deep Disappointment: Politics,

State and Society in Nepal after 1990.” In Michael Hutt, ed. Himalayan People’s War:

Nepal’s Maoist Rebellion. Bloomington Indiana University Press, pp. 166-191

Upreti, B.C., 2006. “The Maoist Insurgency in Nepal: Nature, Growth and Impact.”

South Asia Survey. Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 35-50.

Shrestha, Bal G. 2003. Ethnic Nationalism in Nepal. Kathmandu: IIAS Newsletter 30 March P 22

UNEP. 2001. State of Environment Nepal 2001. Kathmandu. Nepal

Kasperson, J, Kasperson R, and Turner B. (1995): Regions at Risk: Comparison of threatened environments.Tokyo: United Nations University Press, Japan

Tulachan, P.M. (1999). Trends and Prospects of Sustainable Mountain Agriculture in the

Hindu Kush-Himalayan Region: A Comparative Analysis, Issues in Mountain Development

(1999/2).Kathmandu: ICIMOD, Nepal

Pralhad C.K…. The fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid.

Tuladhar, Amulya R. 2011. The Birth of the Political Ecology. Slide Presentation slide number 2

Adhikari, Samesh. 2008. Conflict Resolution, International Cooperation and development. Kathmandu: IIDs

ADB, 2008. The county report. Philippines

Pokharel, Ajita et.al. 2011. The theory of Himalayan Degradation. Slide number 5

CBS. 2001. Nepal Population census

Banskota, Mahesh. 2010. Climate Change Vulnerability in Nepal: Uncertain Science, Increasing Social and Economic Impacts and Weak Governance. Slide number 6

Sharma, Jiwan Raj. 2008. Labor Migration from village to India. Kathmandu.

KATHMANDU UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF ARTS, DEVS AND HNRS COURSES

Tuesday, July 5, 2011

16. Krishna GC The Green Roots of the Red Rebellion of Nepal

Abstract